Forestry Network Newsletter

// Forestry Review - Ireland 2008

Forestry affects the environment in many ways. When managed sustainably through low impact silvicultural systems using appropriate species they enhance native biodiversity, protect waters and soils and providing a multitude of social and economic resources.

Unfortunately in Ireland the practice is high impact forestry on marginal agricultural land which has resulted in loss of native habitat, soil erosion, and water pollution. The issues are:

1. Who controls forestry and what are they doing?
2. Why is its impact so bad?
3. What forestry should we be seeking?

1. WHO CONTROLS FORESTRY?

The Government Strategy for Forestry has as its main elements:

• to increase the productive forest area to 1.2 million hectares and increase farmer planting in particular in the interests of rural development,
• to increase the diversity of species in Irish forests in order to achieve better timber quality, to extend the range of potential end-uses, to reduce risks associated with monocultures for environmental and landscape purposes,
• to ensure that forestry development is compatible with the protection of the environment,
• to encourage the provision of public access to forests having regard to the rights of owners and the development of amenity forestry projects of local social and economic benefit,
• to develop an internationally competitive sawmilling sector based on sound commercial principles,
• to promote the establishment and continued development of a range of complementary primary, secondary and tertiary (including non-wood) forest- based processing industries so as to provide outlets for the output of Ireland's forests and to maximise the share of domestic and export markets which can be captured by such output,
• to promote quality in all aspects of Irish forestry and to ensure that forest products and services meet all relevant national and international standards,
• to promote research and development focused on the strengths of the Irish forestry sector with particular emphasis on market demands, industrial needs, environmental concerns and cost efficiency,
• to develop a comprehensive inventory and planning system to provide forest resource, geographical and environmental data for management, control and planning purposes,
• to ensure the availability and delivery of suitable programmes of education and training to cater for the increasing number of new entrants into forestry and the growth in scale and diversity in the sector.

From an environmental and social (amenity) perspective this looks hopeful with commitments to ‘increase the diversity of species in Irish forests in order to achieve better timber quality, to extend the range of potential end-uses, to reduce risks associated with monocultures for environmental and landscape purposes', ‘to ensure that forestry development is compatible with the protection of the environment' - and so on.

What happens in fact

The Department of Agriculture
Responsibility for implementing the government's forest strategy resides with the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (DAFF). Other government departments that are likely to have an ‘interest' in forest policy are the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government, the Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources, the Department of Enterprise Trade and Employment, the Department of Community, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs, and the Department of Transport.

National Council for Forestry Research and Development (COFORD)
The Minister for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (currently Mr Brendan Smith TD) is advised on forest policy by the National Council for Forestry Research and Development (COFORD).

COFORD's Council consist of 12 members from DAFF, Coillte, Teagasc the IFA and the forest industry. There is not one representative from a social or environmental NGOs or even from other Government departments that cross over with policy e.g. National Parks and Wildlife Service, the Fisheries Boards, or the Environmental Protection Agency.

COFORDs advice is that the ‘primary focus in commercial forests should be on competitive wood production' and they [commercial forests] ‘should not be the primary mechanism to deliver a biodiversity service'.

‘Driving industry competitiveness is one of the key facets underpinning COFORD's funding.'

COFORDs advice on land use is •that

‘Over the next 2 decades land use will have to shift from predominantly food - to food and fuel (forestry). •Also need to critically examine role of REPS - should so much land be tied into biodiversity provision?'

In fact COFORD seeks to separate biodiversity from productive areas rather than ensuring that biodiversity is an integral component of the forest ecosystem.

‘Need for clarity on objectives in NDP -wood production/biodiversity•
Twin track approach needed -separate out biodiversity and commercial wood production
Irish and international research shows biodiversity provision per se is best done at a landscape level by connectivity, establishment of native woodland, corridors in plantations.•Wood production needs to be compatible with biodiversity conservation and sustainable forest management but should not be the primary mechanism to deliver a biodiversity service, primary focus in commercial forests should be on competitive wood production •Twin track approach - commercial production forests (compatible with SFM) and biodiverse areas '

Advised by COFORD, the Forest Service administers a range of grant aided-forest schemes. They require that ‘both conifer and broadleaf sites which are proposed for planting must be capable of producing a commercial sawlog crop of wood. ' So again the emphasis is on the commercial.

DAFF promote forestry through several forestry schemes

The best of these schemes is the Native Woodland Scheme, officially launched in October 2001 and expected to have addressed the management of at least 5,000 hectares of native woodland by the end of 2006. Unfortunately this is a mere 0.8% of the national forest estate. And even here there have been significant environmental problems with large-scale clearfell of mature ‘exotic' species and the use of herbicides. In 2008 funding for Native Woodland restoration was cut and its future looks uncertain.

Main stream forestry is covered by the afforestation scheme and FEPS. So how is main stream forestry matching up to economic, social, and environmental requirements?

The Forest Service operates to a number of standards, codes and guidelines. Forestry is self assessed and, in practice even where complaints are made little action is taken when environmental damage occurs. In order to keep up with the current best scientific knowledge and practice the suit of forestry documents and Guidelines are in urgent need of revision.

The exotic (non-native) ‘non-diverse ' conifers Sitka spruce and Lodgepole pine continues to dominate the forest estate, occupying 62.4% of total forest area, with ‘diverse' conifers at 11% and broadleaves 24%. However 50% of the Broadleaf area (i.e. 12% of the ‘forest area') consists of broadleaf scrub and hedgerow species such as blackthorn, crab apple, rusty willow and goat willow etc . This means that at a maximum only 12 % of the forest estate equates to a potential hard wood timber resource. and in fact is likely to be much less as:

• Many broadleaves are also counted as part of the biodiversity requirement
• Sparsely treed areas (20% cover) are included - e.g naturally regenerated birch etc on cutaway bogs.

Only 2.5% of the forest estate is of oak - once Ireland's National Tree. In fact, genetic analysis has shown that for many ‘native' broadleaves the provenance is not native.

The State Forestry Board - Coillte Teo.
In practice, the States forests - circa 460,000 hectares or 11% of the land area - are managed by Coillte Teoranta (Coillte) the state forestry board which has as it's main objects:

1. To carry on the business of forestry and related activities on a commercial basis and in accordance with efficient silvicultural practices.
2. To establish and carry on woodland industries
3. To participate with others in forestry and related activities consistent with its objects, designed to enhance the effective and profitable operation of the Company,
4. To utilise and manage the resources available to it in a manner consistent with the above objects. (1988 Forestry Act)

The legal status of Coillte Teo tries to indicate on its website that it is a private company which purchased the states forests in a management buyout: "When Coillte was established in 1989 we acquired ownership of the State's forests in return for shares valued at IR£575 million (€730 million)" . But in fact it was created by and is wholly owned by the State.

Coillte's recent economic review gave broadleaves a negative value and Sitka Spruce is considered the only species to give an adequate economic return. This report underpins Coillte's forest policy but the data used is inaccurate The questions raised by FIE's analysis remain unanswered. Coillte's policy has shifted only to the degree that they are planting Sitka spruce onto better land which would support broadleaves to increase the average yield class and timber output.

2. WHAT IS THE IMPACT OF CURRENT FORESTRY POLICY?

Concerns are that afforestation with exotic conifers destined for clearfell continues on fragile soils - not only oligotrophic peats are vulnerable. All soils can be damaged with soils on steep hillsides are particularly at risk of erosion. Forestry maturing now was often planted for employment reasons in remote uplands and on the headwaters of rivers. This makes the impact of nutrient and sediment releases through clearfell particularly significant problems.

Silvicultural systems
It is evident that sustainable forest management is not solely about species mix. The silvicultural system used is critical; a plantation of alder destined for clearfell at 30-35 years old is hardly likely to contribute to biodiversity associated with wooded land. Just as the woodland ecosystem is becoming established its vital component - the trees - are gone.

Clearfell results in the clearance of ground vegetation. Exposed soils wash away and current buffer zones and silt traps are unable to effectively remove sediments particularly on steep sites during heavy rainfall.

Loss of soil through erosion reduces soil quality and preferentially removes the most valuable components - organic material and fine mineral particles - resulting in reduction of cation exchange, water holding capacities and biological activity. Where the B or C horizons are exposed the concomitant deterioration of soil structure greatly reduces water infiltration. Rates of erosion with natural vegetation in kg per meter square per year are for natural vegetation 0.01 - 0.05 and for bare soil are 1.0 - 4.50 (Morgan 1986). Soil is categorised as a non-renewable resource. (

Both fertilisation and clearfell contribute to nutrient leaching. 60% of the forest estate is on peat soils associated with cold wet conditions. These soils are nutrient poor (oligotrophic) and to achieve a reasonable yield class plantations require repeated applications of fertiliser. Records relating to the fresh water pearl mussel show that one plantation in the Galway mountains has received 1400 kilos of rock phosphate per hectare. Nutrients do not bind strongly to peat soils and readily leach into waters.

Large-scale field studies showed that forest clearfelling increased nitrate-N losses to streamwaters. In more peaty soils at Kershope, a significant loss following felling was in gaseous form through the denitrification process (Dutch & Ineson 1990). In contrast to agricultural soils where the product of this process is inert N gas, this study identified the importance of acid forest soils as sources of nitrous oxide, an important greenhouse gas .

The short-term release of nitrate that can follow the large-scale harvesting of some forest sites may pose an additional acidification threat within acid-sensitive areas.

Water
The potential reduction in water yield from conifer forests is likely to be a problem where the supply is being, or is planned to be, fully exploited. This is increasingly the case in many catchments as the demands on water resources continue to grow.

Research suggests there may be a 1.5-2.0% reduction of potential water yield for every 10% of a catchment under mature evergreen forest. On drier less windy lowlands, studies show that reduction in the limited water yields that characterise these areas as 70% or more. This can have important implications for the quantity and quality of lowland groundwater resources and the maintenance of river flows.

Large-scale planting of short rotation coppice crops of poplar and willow will have the greatest negative impact and therefore should be avoided in sensitive locations.

It is likely that the effect of a well managed forest of mixed ages and species will be much less than that of a uniform mature conifer crop. The lower water-use of broadleaved woodland poses much less of a threat to water resources, and may even enhance supplies in some areas.

In Freshwater Fish Conservation In The Irish Republic: A Review Of Pressures And Legislation Impacting On Conservation Efforts', Mike Fitzsimons and Fran Igoe make clear that ‘the absolute requirement for replanting after harvesting (Forestry Act 1946) needs to be reviewed so that replanting is only allowed where yields are attainable without repeated application of nutrients.'

Pesticides
A further adverse impact on the environment resulting from the pursuit of the current Irish plantation forestry systems is the application of pesticides.

Pesticides are used widely and inevitably reduce flora and fauna and may pollute groundwater. In current forestry practices the use of broad spectrum pesticides is the norm. The commonly used broad spectrum pyrethroid insecticides e.g. alpha-cypermethrin are particularly toxic to bees and aquatic organisms. Glyphosate reduces biodiversity including worm populations, which are critical to soil health and humus production. These chemicals are only needed because the silvicultural system requires large clearfell followed by immediate reforestation.

Both fertilisers and pesticides are dependant on the oil industry. Their use is ultimately unsustainable.

Certification
Forest certification has proved the largest obstacle that forestry campaigners have met when lobbying for change. In Ireland Forest Stewardship Council certification is used to excuse bad forest practice both by the Forest Service and the State Forestry Board - Coillte Teoranta.

In a recent forestry protest contractors themselves said that "Seas of mud" are being washed into our rivers. "There is major silt and pollution going in to rivers because proper procedures are not being adhered to." But Coillte was able to defend itself by claiming that "FSC certification means that our forest management meets strict environmental, social and economic criteria".

Ireland's high impact forestry does not comply with FCS standards. FSC have failed to resolve well publicised, substantive complaints. Ireland's FSC process for sustainable forestry has failed. This has happened in a wealthy democratic country with vocal environmentalists. what does FSC certify in under-developed countries? Unfortunate it must be concluded that FSC, reputedly the ‘best' certification scheme in the world, has become merely a Greenwash label and such certification can not be used as a benchmark of sustainable forestry.

3. WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE

The governance of the forestry currently is with the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (DAFF).

There are difficulties with what is commonly referred to as parallel legislation - e.g. where legislation relating to the Habitats Directive is affected by legislation for forestry which map predate or originate from different national authorities.

Within the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government (DoEHLG) there are a number of areas that need to be addressed:

Nature legislation:
(DoEHLG) is responsible for designations as well as legislation covering SPAs and SACs. There are conflicts between policies originating from the different departments e.g intensive silvicultural practices v habitat / species protection and water quality. There is an opportunity for (DoEHLG) to correct this in a revision of relevant guidelines and legislation.

Operational responsibility for forestry and decisions lie with DAFF. In practice, this Department has not adequately addressed relevant legislation.
Water pollution:
DoEHLG is responsible for the legislation governing water quality including in relation to water containing protected species such as the Fresh Water Pearl Mussel and salmon. This has particular impact on waters designated under the Water Framework Directive. The impact of conifers/land use on the availability of water for public use has not been addressed or incorporated into planning at any level.
Impact assessment:
Adequate and precautionary management plans for all forestry - afforestation and reforestation taking soil type, water catchments and acid sensitivity into account identified as essential by environmental NGOs.

DoEHLG is responsible for the overall framework for assessing plans and projects under the Environmental Impact Assessment Directive .85/337/EEC and the Strategic Environmental Assessment 2001/42/EC.

Strategic Environmental Assessment would have been required if forestry had formed part of the Rural Development Plan 2007 - 2012 but it was excluded from the elements put forward for community funding. An SEA for Ireland's Forestry Plan must be done without delay.

Quality before quantity
Ireland is a small island and the National Staretgy to plant 20,000 hectares a year to reach ‘crtical mass' where an lucrative Irish paper and pulp sector could be competitive in the global market has failed. Rather than continuing to promote poor quality fast growing timber such as Sitka spruce Ireland needs to focus on higher quality timbers, taking climate change forecasts into account in species section and diversification.

Current forestry policy must plan for 2050 when energy will only be economic if it is renewable and the transport of fuels will make current systems unworkable. Small town-bases projects growing species suitable for fuel production through agro forestry systems also enhance biodiversity and provide amenity, for filling the requirements for commercial, environmental, and social forestry.

To summarise to sustainable forestry there is an urgent need:
• to assess and propose amendments to:
o legislation,
o policies
o inter-departmental arrangements,
o management plans

• to undertake policy engagement with relevant government departments and key stakeholders in the forestry sector including environmental and social NGOs and community groups, initially through the consultation process required as part of the Strategic Environmental Assessment process.

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ADDITONAL REFERENCES

Source http://www.agriculture.gov.ie/areasofi/fds/S135(1).doc

The potential reduction in water yield from conifer forests is likely to be a problem where the supply is being, or is planned to be, fully exploited. This is increasingly the case in many catchments as the demands on water resources continue to grow It is likely that the effect of a well managed forest of mixed ages and species will be much less than that of a uniform mature conifer crop.
The lower water-use of broadleaved woodland poses much less of a threat to water resources, and may even enhance supplies in some areas. Large-scale planting of short rotation coppice crops of poplar and willow will have the greatest negative impact and
therefore should be avoided in sensitive locations.

Sustainable Forestry and the Protection of Water in Great Britain T.R. Nisbet & H McKay, Forestry Commission, Great Britain.
Research suggests there may be a 1.5-2.0% reduction of potential water yield for every 10% of a catchment under mature evergreen forest.
The drier and less windy climate in the lowlands reduces the interception loss, but tree transpiration rates may be higher due to roots reaching deeper soil water reserves. The net effect of a mature evergreen forest can be a marked reduction in the limited water yields that characterise these areas, amounting to as much as 70% or more. This can have important implications for the quantity and quality of lowland groundwater resources and the maintenance of river flows.

A critical load is defined as the maximum load of a pollutant that a given ecosystem can tolerate without suffering adverse change. For fresh waters, critical loads can be calculated which, provided they are not exceeded, should ensure the maintenance of water chemistry suitable for the protection of populations of fish and other freshwater biota.
In the case of catchments designated as candidate SACs in critical loads exceedance and adjacent squares areas], a detailed catchment based assessment is required for forest replanting under the Habitats Directive regardless of altitude.
The short-term release of nitrate that can follow the large-scale harvesting of some forest sites may pose an additional acidification threat within acid-sensitive areas and there may be a need to carry out a site impact assessment.
http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/faw2002/19%20T.%20Nisbet%20&%20H.%20McKay%20(UK).pdf

STREAM CHEMISTRY IMPACTS OF CONIFER HARVESTING IN
WELSH CATCHMENTS
B. Reynolds, P. A. Stevens, S. Hughes, J. A. Parkinson and N. S. Weatherley
Abstract. Hydrochemical data have been collected for between 6 and 9 years from forest harvesting experiments in small catchments (> 10 ha) at Plynlimon and Beddgelert, Wales, UK. Felling resulted in rapid increases in NO~" and K + concentrations at both sites. A maximum of 3.2 mg N L-1 was observed at Plynlimon about one year after the start of felling. Concentrations declined to control
stream values (0.5 mg N L-1) after 5 years. At Beddgelert, NO~- concentrations in the manipulated
catchments remained above those in the unfelled control catchment for three years, before declining
below control values. The NO 3 pulse was related to increased rates of mineralization and nitrification
in the soil after felling. The initial increase in K + concentration after felling at Plynlimon was followed by a slow decline, but concentrations were still above those in the control stream after 5 years. From 4 to 8 years after felling at Beddgelert, K + concentrations fell below and then generally remained lower than control values. The NO 3 pulse after felling at Plynlimon sustained inorganic anion concentrations above those in the control stream for the first 18 months after felling. As the NO 3 pulse declined, inorganic anion concentrations decreased to below those in the control stream about 4 years after felling. At Beddgelert, the smaller increase in NO~- concentrations had less of an effect on inorganic anion concentrations which decreased after felling relative to values in the control stream. The increase in NO 3 was associated with temporary streamwater acidification in the felled catchments due to the increased rates of nitrification and nitrate leaching.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/u5gj223688907567/

Forestry & peat guidance note
Current UK best bog/forest practice: http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/fcgn1.pdf/$FILE/fcgn1.pdf

Reclaiming peatlands for forestry: the Irish experience
Florence Renou and E. P. Farrell University College Dublin
Fencing against hares and deer is necessary when planting broadleaves and may be considered for conifers if hare populations are high. The Irish hare (Lepus timidus Linnaeus) is a protected species in Ireland and is considered to be the only mammal that truly belongs to the bog (Feehan and O'Donovan 1996). Cutaway peatland is its preferred habitat.
http://www.ucd.ie/ferg/Research/Topics/L1635_C34.pdf

SILTATION
Quantification and management of erosion and siltation
Dr Michael Rodgers, NUI Galway
John Mulqueen, NUI Galway
Markus Müller, NUI Galway*
Liwen Xiao, NUI Galway
* For correspondence, email: michael.rodgers@nuigalway.ie
Phosphorus concentrations (TP 17 ug/l and TRP 8 ug/l) and loads were uniformly low at both monitoring stations prior and at the beginning of the clearfelling. This was the case even during storm events. A strong relationship between the phosphorus load and the flow rate has been observed. However, during and after harvesting an increase in P-concentrations leaving the study area was recorded at the downstream measuring station. The highest P-concentration of about 200 ug/l to date was measured during the highest rainfall and flood event. Phosphorus values at the upstream site still remain constantly low.
Flash floods are a common phenomenon.
The concentrations of suspended sediments ranged from 0 to 3.6 mg/l during base flow conditions and up to 65 mg/l during storm events at both measuring stations. After the clearfelling a moderate increase of the suspended sediment concentration at the downstream measuring station has been noticed. Concentrations at the upstream control station remained the same. However, due to the increased flow higher sediment loads have been recorded during flood events at the downstream site.
http://www.coford.ie/iopen24/pub/defaultarticle.php?cArticlePath=196_421_422_249

Renou, F. and T. Cummins, 2002. Soil as a key to sustainable forest management. In: Convery, F. and Feehan, J. (Eds), Achievement and Challenge, Rio + 10 and Ireland. The Environmental Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin, pp 85-90.
Annual median values were well above the Irish thresholds for the eutrophication of rivers. The peak in phosphorus concentrations occurs soon after the operation (be it felling or fertilising), and the duration of the response is long, at least three years. Two streams exhibited strong seasonality of MRP concentrations following felling with or without fertilising (Figs. 5 & 8).
http://www.ucd.ie/ferg/Research/Projects/BOGFOR/Renou%20%20Cummins%20Rio10_Dublin_2002.pdf

Phosphate requirements for forestry.
There are 2 products which can be used to satisfy the Phosphate requirements of forestry.
1. For slow release Phosphate use G.R.P. Ground Rock Phosphate (12% Phosphate)
2. For faster release Granuphos can be used at (11.5% Phosphate, 32.2% Calcium, 7.2% Magnesium and slag-based trace elements).
Or a combination of both of these products can be used.
Site Type Use
G.R.P. Ground Rock Phosphate
Or
Granuphos
( Evenly Distributed (Kg/ha) )
Enclosed / improved fields recently worked None
Former agriculture land not recently worked 250 Kg/ha
Unenclosed Land 350 Kg/ha

On very poor sites, two applications may be necessary:
- 350 Kg/ha at establishment
- A second application of 250 Kg/ha as required
http://www.gouldings.ie/topical_issues04.htm

Sargent announces €21m R&D grants for sustainable agriculture and forestry research
Issued: 09 January 2008
Assessment and mitigation of soil and nutrient losses from acid-sensitive forest catchments NUI Galway, Marine Institute €995,094
http://www.greenparty.ie/en/news/latest_news/sargent_announces_21m_r_d_grants_for_sustainable_agriculture_and_forestry_research

A critical P concentration for triggering eutrophic effects in lakes can be as low as 0.02 to 0.035 mg l-1 (Vollenweider, 1975).

Environmental RTDI Programme 2000-2006 EUTROPHICATION FROM AGRICULTURAL
SOURCES - Phosphorus Chemistry of Mineral and Peat Soils in Ireland (2000-LS-2.1.1b-M2)
Final Report Prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency by Teagasc, Johnstown Castle, Wexford Authors: Karen Daly and David Styles
Peat soils and high organic matter soils (%OM > 20) did not chemically adsorb P in the same way that mineral soils do. Surface applications of manure and fertiliser P on peat soils may be lost to water if P is not sorbed into the soil. This project recommends that a detailed soil survey is completed on a national level, so that soil parameters such as pH and %OM, included in the survey bulletins, can be used, alongside STP level, as a guide towards high desorption soils and peat soils where heavy applications of P should be avoided. Identifying soils at risk of P desorption might be used towards developing P management strategies that are more soil type specific.
http://www.epa.ie/downloads/pubs/research/water/epa_eutrophication_agricultural_ertdi38_final.pdf

The higher the degree of P saturation in the soil, the higher the risk of P loss to water. Soils have a capacity to hold P and this varies depending on soil properties, such as organic matter, Al and Fe. For example, soils with a high content of iron and aluminium have a high capacity to bind P, while sandy and peat soils will generally have a lower capacity to bind P.Peat soils have lower sorption and desorption values than mineral soils, at broadly similar STP levels. This indicates that peat soils, with lower amounts of P binding cations (e.g. Al and Fe), are unsuitable for heavy applications of P fertiliser or manure. In this work mineral soils were up to 79 percent saturated with P, with high desorption rates at elevated STP. These soils are particularly susceptible to P loss to water.
The shallow type of water table found in this hillslope (Dripsey, Co. Cork) predisposes the riparian zones (about 100 m on either side of the stream) to frequent periods of saturation. Phosphorus spread on such riparian zones is highly susceptible to being lost to streams. The assessment of the water table depth should be part of any strategy for nutrient management because of the high risk that water tables close to the surface pose for nutrient transport.

When soils are low in P, in their natural state, the background loss to water is generally very low, of the order of 0.1 to 0.2 kg P per ha per year or less.
http://www.teagasc.ie/research/reports/environment/4365/eopr-4365-1.htm

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A
Long term studies such as for the catchment of the River severn in Wales

No felling plans are required at the afforestation time. drainage can have a significant impact on fragile soils and alter the hydrology of an area increasing run off resulting in increased risk of flooding downstream.

FRESHWATER FISH CONSERVATION IN THE IRISH REPUBLIC: A REVIEW OF PRESSURES AND LEGISLATION IMPACTING ON CONSERVATION EFFORTS
Mike Fitzsimons and Fran Igoe
It is Irish government policy to increase the land area under forestry in the state (Forest Service
1996). This policy targets agriculturally poor land, and most commercial forestry is associated with upland or peatland areas, deemed unsuitable for other forms of agriculture. Most of these plantations
mainly comprise monocultures of conifer species.
Negative impacts of forestry plantations on fisheries can include altered hydrology (Robinson 1980; Leeks and Roberts 1987), increased sediment yield, especially in the first five years after planting or during harvesting (Robinson and Blyth 1982; Leeks and Roberts 1987), shading effects on food webs and fish populations (Smith 1980; Harriman and Morrison 1982; Stoner and Gee 1985; Omerod et al . 1987; 1991; Igoe 1999) and changes in water chemistry, such as decreased pH and nutrient supply, with phosphorus losses to waters ranging from 15% at year 3, to a predicted 30% at year 9 (Gibson 1976; Harriman 1978; Malcolm et al . 1983a; 1983b). Some studies have documented negative impacts of fisheries acidification that are attributable to forestry plantations in base poor geology areas in Ireland (Allott et al . 1990; Farrell et al. 1991; Allott and Brennan 1992; Kelly-Quinn et al . 1997). Harvesting of forestry timber is also associated with increased surface water runoff, particularly in hilly areas, and sedimentation in nearby streams.
The adoption by the Forest Service of the Native Woodland Scheme in 2002, under which native broadleaf trees are planted in an environmentally sustainable manner, is a welcome development in forestry policy in Ireland. However, the absolute requirement for replanting after harvesting (Forestry Act 1946) needs to be reviewed so that replanting is only allowed where yields are attainable without
repeated application of nutrients.
http://www.ria.ie/cgi-bin/ria/papers/100382.pdf

The two main schemes are afforestation and FEPS
Under these schemes 100% non-native species.

Forest Environment Protection Scheme (FEPS)
‘to encourage farmers to establish and maintain high nature value forestry through measures such as increasing biodiversity and protecting water quality'. Producing commercial timber is also listed as an objective of FEPS but the strong emphasis is on the environment. http://www.environment.teagasc.ie/Schemes/FEPS.asp
Species (native/non-native)
County / Area
Total
1000 ha (α = 0.05) %
non-native 474.20 (462.71 - 485.70) 75.8
native 140.33 (129.29 - 151.36) 22.4
temporarily unstocked 11.22 (7.09 - 15.35) 1.8
Total 625.75 100.0

conifer 462.58 (450.57 - 474.59) 73.9
broadleaf 151.95 (140.34 - 163.55) 24.3
temporarily unstocked 11.22 (7.09 - 15.35) 1.8
Total 625.75 100.0

700,000 ha total forest area
625.75 ha Stocked
11.22 ha temporarily unstocked
Total potential stocked

COFORD projects. Phosphate - counted as environmental project, light under Sitka ‘An experiment was established in a pure Sitka spruce stand (planted in 1965) at Ballinagappoge in Aughrim Forest, Co Wicklow, in 2002. The main conclusion from this work is that understorey light levels in mature Sitka spruce canopies are too low to allow all but the mostshade-tolerant species to survive'., flume wier model etc

National Forest Inventory

Despite best practice (Forestry Commission, 1993), clear-felling of forest would be predicted to impact run-off and nutrient dynamics (e.g., Neal et al., 2004b). For example, timber-felling on peaty-mineral soils generally leads to an increase in streamwater [DOC] which may persist for a few years, especially at a local scale (Neal, 2004; Neal et al., 2004a, 2004b); when clear
felled (vs. phased felling), nitrate concentration can be significantly higher in run-off for several years after deforestation (Neal et al., 2004b); increases in phosphorus appear more localised (Neal, 2004), except where, as with the some Whitelee catchments, gley soils are present (Neal et al., 2004a). http://www.biogeosciences-discuss.net/5/1139/2008/bgd-5-1139-2008-print.pdf